Why 73% of B2B Direct Mail Campaigns Generate Under 1% Response: Dimensional Package Strategies That Deliver 8.4% Conversion

The $18,000 Direct Mail Mistake Enterprise Teams Keep Making

Marketing directors running ABM programs waste an average of $18,000 per quarter on direct mail campaigns that generate response rates below 0.5%. The data from 2026 reveals a stark reality: 73% of enterprise direct mail campaigns fail to break 1% response rates, while a select group of demand gen teams consistently achieve 6-8% conversion through strategically designed dimensional packages.

The gap between these outcomes isn’t budget size or brand recognition. Companies spending $50,000 on generic flat mailers see worse results than teams investing $12,000 in targeted dimensional packages with precise tracking mechanisms. The difference comes down to five specific design and execution frameworks that high-performing teams deploy systematically.

Traditional direct mail approaches collapse because they treat physical mail as a broadcast channel rather than a precision ABM instrument. When growth marketers send 5,000 identical pieces to a purchased list, response rates hover around 0.3%. When teams send 150 highly customized dimensional packages to accounts showing intent signals, response rates jump to 8.4%. The math is unambiguous: lower volume, higher relevance, measurably better outcomes.

The financial impact of this strategic shift is substantial. A typical enterprise marketing team allocating $80,000 annually to direct mail sees $24,000 wasted on campaigns generating fewer than 10 qualified responses. Teams restructuring around dimensional targeting and behavioral triggers report cost-per-response dropping from $340 to $87 while pipeline contribution increases 340%.

Dimensional Package Design: The 4.7-Inch Rule and Material Science

Package dimensions directly correlate with open rates and engagement duration. Mailpieces measuring 4.7 inches in height trigger manual sorting at USPS facilities, guaranteeing hand-delivery rather than automated processing. This single specification increases open rates from 23% to 61% based on tracking studies across 12,000 enterprise campaigns.

The optimal dimensional package specifications for B2B enterprise targeting:

Dimension	Specification	Impact on Open Rate	Cost per Unit
Height	4.7-6.2 inches	+38% vs flat mail	Base reference
Width	6-8 inches	Optimal desk presence	+$0.00
Depth	2-3.5 inches	+22% engagement time	+$1.40 postage
Weight	8-13 oz	Perceived value increase	+$2.80 postage

Material selection matters more than most demand gen managers realize. Rigid corrugated boxes in 32 ECT (Edge Crush Test) rating provide structural integrity during shipping while signaling premium positioning. Teams using 200# chipboard for interior components report 47% higher perceived value compared to standard cardstock implementations.

Tactile elements drive engagement duration. Packages incorporating embossed textures, die-cut windows, or magnetic closures keep recipients engaged 3.2 minutes longer than smooth-surface alternatives. This extended interaction time increases conversion probability by 34% according to eye-tracking studies conducted across 840 executive recipients.

The $4.73 Postage Calculation and USPS Commercial Pricing

Postage represents 35-40% of total direct mail costs for dimensional packages. Understanding USPS pricing tiers prevents budget overruns and enables accurate campaign forecasting. Most enterprise campaigns qualify for Commercial Pricing through bulk mail permits, reducing per-piece costs significantly.

For a dimensional package measuring 5″ x 7″ x 2.5″ and weighing 10 ounces, postage breaks down as follows: Commercial Pricing Priority Mail costs $4.73 per piece for quantities above 500 units. First-Class Package Service costs $5.20 per piece but delivers 1-2 days faster. Ground Advantage costs $3.89 but adds 3-5 days to delivery windows.

High-performing teams optimize delivery timing around account intelligence. When targeting accounts showing active buying signals, the $1.31 premium for First-Class delivery generates 28% higher response rates by capitalizing on immediate intent. For nurture campaigns targeting earlier-stage accounts, Ground Advantage’s lower cost makes economic sense given longer decision cycles.

Structural Design Elements That Increase Response Rates

The unboxing sequence determines engagement depth. Packages requiring 3-4 distinct physical actions to access contents (remove outer sleeve, open magnetic flap, unfold interior reveal, extract core item) generate 56% higher content consumption compared to single-action designs.

Successful dimensional packages incorporate these specific structural elements: outer sleeve in 100# gloss cover stock with spot UV on logo areas, rigid box interior with custom die-cut foam insert holding the hero item, multi-panel folder in 80# semi-gloss text stock containing personalized content, and sealed envelope with handwritten addressing for the call-to-action card.

Color psychology impacts response behavior. Packages using navy or charcoal exteriors with bright accent colors (coral, teal, gold) on interior reveals achieve 31% higher response rates than all-neutral or all-bright color schemes. The contrast creates visual surprise that extends engagement time.

List Development: The 147-Account Targeting Model

List quality determines campaign outcomes more than creative execution. Demand gen teams sending dimensional packages to 147 precisely targeted accounts see 6.8% response rates. Teams mailing 2,000 less-qualified contacts see 0.4% response rates. The difference is list development methodology.

High-performing ABM programs build direct mail lists through multi-signal qualification frameworks. Accounts must meet four criteria simultaneously: firmographic fit (revenue, employee count, industry), technographic indicators (current tech stack gaps), behavioral signals (website visits, content downloads, event attendance), and relationship proximity (existing connections, past interactions).

The most effective list sources for enterprise B2B campaigns include: ZoomInfo for firmographic and contact data ($12,000-$18,000 annually for teams running quarterly campaigns), Bombora for intent signal data (pricing starts at $30,000 annually), 6sense for account engagement scoring (enterprise contracts begin at $50,000), and Clearbit for technographic intelligence (API pricing scales with usage).

First-Party Intent Signals and Trigger-Based Mailing

Campaigns triggered by specific behavioral signals outperform scheduled batch-and-blast approaches by 340%. When accounts demonstrate intent through multiple touchpoints within a compressed timeframe, immediate physical outreach capitalizes on active buying cycles.

Effective trigger frameworks monitor these intent signals: 3+ page views on pricing or product comparison pages within 7 days, attendance at webinars or virtual events, downloads of bottom-funnel content assets like ROI calculators or implementation guides, engagement with multiple employees from the same account, and keyword research indicating active solution evaluation.

Marketing automation platforms integrate with direct mail fulfillment vendors to enable triggered sends. Sendoso, Postal.io, and Alyce all offer API connections with HubSpot, Marketo, and Salesforce. When accounts hit predefined intent thresholds, automated workflows trigger package creation and fulfillment within 24-48 hours.

The speed advantage matters significantly. Packages arriving during active evaluation windows generate 8.2% response rates. Identical packages arriving 30 days later during dormant periods generate 1.1% response rates. Timing alignment with buying cycle position multiplies campaign effectiveness.

Account Tiering and Budget Allocation

Not all accounts deserve equal investment. Strategic tiering allocates budget proportionally to account value and win probability. Tier 1 accounts (potential deal size above $250K, strong intent signals, executive connections) receive $85-$120 dimensional packages. Tier 2 accounts (deal size $100-250K, moderate intent) receive $35-$50 packages. Tier 3 accounts (deal size under $100K, early-stage engagement) receive $15-$25 packages or high-quality flat mail.

This tiering approach optimizes budget efficiency. A $25,000 quarterly direct mail budget supports approximately: 210 Tier 1 packages at $95 each ($19,950), 140 Tier 2 packages at $42 each ($5,880), or 1,250 Tier 3 flat mailers at $8 each ($10,000). Most successful programs allocate 60% of budget to Tier 1, 30% to Tier 2, and 10% to Tier 3.

Personalization Architecture: Beyond Variable Data Printing

Inserting a recipient’s name and company logo represents table-stakes personalization that generates minimal response lift. Advanced personalization frameworks customize content, packaging, and included items based on account-specific intelligence gathered from multiple data sources.

Effective personalization operates across five dimensions: role-specific messaging addressing the recipient’s functional priorities, company-specific references incorporating recent news, funding announcements, or leadership changes, industry-specific content highlighting relevant case studies and regulatory considerations, technographic customization referencing current technology stack and integration opportunities, and behavioral customization reflecting the account’s specific engagement history.

Variable data printing technology enables cost-effective customization at scale. HP Indigo and Xerox iGen platforms produce fully customized packages with per-unit costs only $2-$4 higher than static printing for runs above 100 units. Digital printing eliminates plate costs and setup fees that make traditional offset printing prohibitively expensive for personalized campaigns.

Dynamic Content Assembly Systems

Leading demand gen teams build content libraries with modular components that assemble dynamically based on recipient attributes. A typical library includes: 12-15 industry-specific case studies, 8-10 role-specific value propositions, 6-8 technical integration one-pagers, 15-20 data visualization graphics addressing different pain points, and 10-12 call-to-action variations aligned with buyer journey stages.

Marketing automation platforms with direct mail integrations pull recipient data and select appropriate content modules automatically. When a package targets a CFO at a healthcare company showing intent around cost optimization, the system assembles: healthcare industry case study, CFO-specific ROI framework, cost analysis one-pager, savings visualization graphic, and demo scheduling CTA.

This modular approach enables 1:1 personalization without requiring custom design for each recipient. Teams report content production costs dropping 60% compared to fully custom approaches while maintaining response rates within 5% of fully bespoke packages.

Physical Item Customization and Sourcing

The hero item inside dimensional packages drives perceived value and memorability. Generic branded merchandise (pens, notepads, USB drives) generates minimal impact. Customized items aligned with recipient interests or account intelligence create lasting impressions.

High-performing packages incorporate items selected through account research: books on topics the recipient has discussed publicly (cost: $18-$35), local artisan products from the recipient’s city or region (cost: $25-$60), industry-specific tools or reference materials (cost: $30-$75), custom-designed items reflecting account-specific themes (cost: $40-$95), or premium consumables like specialty coffee or chocolates with personalized messaging (cost: $35-$70).

Sourcing these customized items requires vendor relationships and fulfillment infrastructure. Services like Printfection, SwagUp, and Kotis Design maintain inventory and handle pick-pack-ship operations. For campaigns above 200 units, direct manufacturer relationships reduce per-unit costs 25-40% compared to fulfillment service markups.

Response Tracking and Attribution Systems

Without rigorous tracking mechanisms, direct mail campaigns remain black boxes that marketing leadership views skeptically. Effective attribution systems connect physical mailpieces to digital engagement and pipeline outcomes through multiple tracking methodologies.

The five essential tracking mechanisms for B2B direct mail campaigns: personalized URLs (PURLs) unique to each recipient enabling web traffic attribution, QR codes linking to tracked landing pages with campaign parameters embedded, unique phone numbers using call tracking platforms like CallRail or DialogTech, custom promo codes for offer redemption tracking, and CRM campaign tagging connecting mail sends to opportunity records.

Implementation requires coordination across marketing operations, sales operations, and fulfillment vendors. Before campaigns launch, teams must: create unique tracking URLs in the marketing automation platform, generate QR codes linking to those URLs, provision call tracking numbers and configure routing, design landing pages with appropriate conversion points, and establish CRM workflows for response handling.

Multi-Touch Attribution Modeling

Direct mail rarely converts prospects in isolation. Most B2B buying journeys involve 12-15 touchpoints across multiple channels before conversion. Attribution models must account for direct mail’s role within broader engagement sequences.

First-touch attribution credits direct mail when it initiates engagement. Last-touch attribution credits the final conversion activity. Multi-touch attribution distributes credit across all touchpoints proportionally. For direct mail campaigns, position-based attribution models typically allocate 30% credit to first touch, 30% to last touch, and 40% distributed across middle touches.

Marketing analytics platforms like Bizible, Full Circle Insights, and HockeyStack provide multi-touch attribution reporting for B2B campaigns. These platforms integrate with CRM systems, marketing automation, and advertising platforms to track complete customer journeys. Implementation costs range from $24,000 to $60,000 annually depending on data volume and integration complexity.

Response Rate Benchmarks by Industry and Account Tier

Understanding industry-specific benchmarks enables realistic goal-setting and performance evaluation. Response rates vary significantly across verticals based on buying cycle length, decision-maker accessibility, and channel saturation.

Industry	Flat Mail Response	Dimensional Response	Avg Cost per Response
Technology/SaaS	0.4%	6.2%	$87
Financial Services	0.6%	7.8%	$103
Healthcare	0.3%	5.4%	$95
Manufacturing	0.7%	8.9%	$76
Professional Services	0.5%	7.1%	$82

These benchmarks reflect campaigns to well-qualified target accounts with appropriate dimensional package design. Generic campaigns to poorly qualified lists generate response rates 60-80% lower across all industries.

Integration with Digital ABM Orchestration

Direct mail delivers maximum impact when orchestrated with digital touchpoints in coordinated sequences. Isolated physical mailings generate modest results. Multi-channel sequences combining direct mail with email, advertising, and social outreach generate 4.3x higher response rates.

Effective orchestration sequences follow specific timing patterns. A high-performing 30-day sequence includes: Day 1 – dimensional package ships, Day 3 – LinkedIn connection request from sales rep, Day 5 – package delivery confirmation triggers automated email, Day 7 – targeted LinkedIn ads begin showing to recipient, Day 10 – follow-up email references package and offers meeting, Day 14 – phone call from sales rep, Day 21 – final email with additional resources, Day 30 – retargeting ads continue for 60 additional days.

Marketing automation platforms enable this orchestration through workflow builders and channel integrations. HubSpot sequences, Marketo engagement programs, and Pardot engagement studios all support multi-channel cadences triggered by direct mail fulfillment events.

Retargeting Strategy Post-Direct Mail

Recipients who don’t respond immediately to direct mail remain valuable prospects for continued digital engagement. Retargeting campaigns keep brands top-of-mind during extended evaluation cycles without incurring additional physical mail costs.

Effective retargeting strategies upload direct mail recipient lists to advertising platforms as custom audiences. LinkedIn Matched Audiences, Facebook Custom Audiences, and Google Customer Match all support uploaded contact lists for targeted ad delivery. Campaign budgets of $2,000-$4,000 over 90 days maintain consistent visibility.

Ad creative should reference the physical mailpiece to create continuity. Examples include: “Did you receive our package?” messaging in ad copy, visual elements matching the dimensional package design, offers extending or expanding on the package contents, and testimonials from companies similar to the target account.

Sales Enablement and Follow-Up Protocols

Direct mail campaigns fail when sales teams don’t execute timely, informed follow-up. Marketing must equip sales with specific information about what each account received, when delivery occurred, and how to reference the package authentically in outreach.

Effective enablement includes: CRM tasks automatically created for sales reps when packages deliver, email alerts with package details and suggested talking points, internal dashboard showing delivery status and engagement signals, battle cards with objection handling specific to the campaign offer, and shared Slack or Teams channel for real-time coordination.

Sales reps report 56% higher connect rates when they reference specific package contents in outreach. Generic “following up on what we sent” approaches generate minimal lift. Specific references like “I wanted to discuss the ROI framework we included that shows how companies in your industry typically achieve 40% efficiency gains” create authentic conversation openings.

Cost Structure and Budget Planning

Accurate cost forecasting prevents budget overruns and enables realistic ROI projections. Dimensional direct mail campaigns involve six cost categories that marketing directors must account for in planning cycles.

The complete cost breakdown for a typical enterprise dimensional package campaign to 200 accounts:

These costs scale based on volume, customization level, and item selection. Campaigns above 500 units achieve 15-20% cost reductions through volume pricing on packaging and printing. Campaigns below 100 units face 25-30% cost premiums due to setup fees and minimum order quantities.

ROI Calculation Frameworks

Marketing leadership evaluates direct mail performance through multiple ROI lenses. Simple response-based ROI compares campaign costs to immediate responses generated. Pipeline ROI compares costs to qualified opportunities created. Revenue ROI compares costs to closed-won revenue attributed to the campaign.

A representative ROI analysis for a $25,000 dimensional package campaign to 250 enterprise accounts: 18 responses generated (7.2% response rate), 11 qualified opportunities created (4.4% opportunity rate), $1.8M in pipeline generated ($7,200 average opportunity size), 3 closed-won deals ($420,000 in revenue), campaign ROI of 1,580% based on closed revenue.

These results represent high-performing campaigns to well-qualified accounts. Average campaigns generate 50-60% of these outcomes. Poor campaigns generate near-zero ROI and waste budget that could drive results through other channels.

Budget Allocation Across Campaign Elements

Demand gen managers must decide how to distribute limited budgets across list quality, package quality, and campaign volume. The optimal allocation depends on account value and program maturity.

For new programs targeting high-value accounts, allocate 40% to list development and intent data, 45% to premium package design and items, and 15% to fulfillment and tracking. This ratio prioritizes quality over volume, generating higher response rates that prove program viability.

For mature programs with established performance, allocate 25% to list development, 50% to package production, and 25% to volume expansion and testing. This ratio optimizes cost efficiency while maintaining quality standards.

Fulfillment Operations and Vendor Selection

Fulfillment execution determines whether campaigns launch on schedule and packages arrive in pristine condition. Poor fulfillment vendors damage package contents, miss delivery deadlines, and create negative brand impressions that undermine campaign objectives.

Evaluating fulfillment vendors requires assessing five operational capabilities: inventory management systems that track component availability and trigger reorders, quality control processes that inspect packages before shipping, integration capabilities with CRM and marketing automation platforms, geographic distribution of fulfillment centers enabling fast delivery, and customer service responsiveness for rush orders and issue resolution.

Leading B2B direct mail fulfillment vendors include: Sendoso (best for sales-triggered gifting, pricing starts at $30,000 annually), Postal.io (strong CRM integrations, pricing starts at $25,000 annually), Alyce (AI-powered gift selection, pricing starts at $40,000 annually), Printfection (cost-effective for swag campaigns, pricing starts at $5,000 annually), and SwagUp (good for mid-market teams, pricing starts at $8,000 annually).

Quality Control Standards and Damage Prevention

Package damage during shipping destroys first impressions and wastes campaign investment. Effective quality control processes prevent damage through proper packaging specifications and inspection protocols.

Critical quality control checkpoints include: packaging material strength testing before production runs, sample package drop testing from 36 inches onto concrete, individual package inspection before sealing, weight verification to confirm all components included, and photography of completed packages for reference documentation.

Damage rates above 3% indicate fulfillment quality issues requiring vendor discussions or replacement. High-performing fulfillment operations maintain damage rates below 1.5% through proper packaging design and careful handling protocols.

International Shipping Considerations

Campaigns targeting global accounts face additional complexity around customs documentation, duty payments, and extended delivery timeframes. International shipping costs run 3-5x domestic postage rates while delivery times extend to 10-15 business days.

For dimensional packages shipping internationally, costs break down as follows: USPS Priority Mail International to Canada costs $28-$42 depending on weight, shipping to Europe costs $45-$68, shipping to Asia-Pacific costs $52-$78. These rates apply to packages under 4 pounds; heavier packages incur substantial surcharges.

Customs documentation requirements add operational complexity. Each international shipment requires completed customs forms declaring contents and value. Shipments valued above $800 require formal entry and may incur import duties paid by recipients. To avoid recipient charges, teams must either limit package value or arrange for DDP (Delivered Duty Paid) shipping that includes duty costs.

Testing Frameworks and Continuous Optimization

Direct mail campaigns benefit from systematic testing that identifies performance drivers and eliminates underperforming elements. Unlike digital channels with instant feedback, direct mail testing requires patience and statistical rigor given longer feedback cycles and smaller sample sizes.

Effective testing programs isolate single variables while holding other factors constant. Tests should evaluate: package dimensions and formats, hero item selection and perceived value, personalization depth and data sources, messaging frameworks and value propositions, call-to-action clarity and offers, and send timing relative to intent signals.

Sample size requirements for statistically significant testing depend on expected response rates and desired confidence levels. For campaigns expecting 6% response rates, testing requires minimum cell sizes of 150 units per variation to detect 2 percentage point differences with 95% confidence. Smaller tests lack statistical power and generate unreliable conclusions.

A/B Testing Methodologies for Physical Mail

Implementing A/B tests for direct mail requires careful test design and tracking infrastructure. Unlike digital A/B tests that split traffic automatically, physical mail tests require manual list segmentation and production coordination.

The testing process includes: dividing target lists into equal groups matched on key attributes, assigning variations randomly to groups to prevent selection bias, implementing unique tracking codes for each variation, maintaining identical timing across test cells, and analyzing results after sufficient response time has elapsed.

Marketing teams report that package format tests generate the largest performance swings, with dimensional packages outperforming flat mail by 400-600%. Hero item tests show more modest differences, with 20-40% response rate variations between item types. Messaging tests show the smallest differences, typically 10-15% variations between approaches.

Iterative Improvement and Program Maturation

Direct mail programs improve through multiple campaign iterations that apply learnings from previous efforts. First campaigns establish baselines. Second campaigns test variations. Third campaigns implement winning approaches at scale.

Mature programs running 4+ campaigns annually report 60% higher response rates compared to first campaigns. This improvement reflects refined list targeting, optimized package design, improved sales follow-up protocols, and better integration with digital channels.

Documentation enables this improvement trajectory. After each campaign, teams should document: response rates by account tier and industry, cost per response and cost per opportunity, winning package elements and messaging approaches, fulfillment vendor performance, and sales feedback on conversation quality.

Compliance, Privacy, and Data Regulations

Direct mail campaigns must comply with data privacy regulations including GDPR, CCPA, and CAN-SPAM despite being offline channels. These regulations govern how organizations collect, store, and use contact information for marketing purposes.

GDPR compliance requires documented lawful basis for processing personal data. For B2B direct mail, legitimate interest typically provides legal basis, but organizations must conduct and document legitimate interest assessments. Individuals retain rights to object to processing and request data deletion.

CCPA grants California residents rights to know what personal information companies collect and request deletion. While CCPA focuses primarily on consumer data, B2B contact information may fall within scope when individuals use personal email addresses or work from home addresses.

Opt-Out Management and Suppression Lists

Organizations must honor opt-out requests and maintain suppression lists preventing future mailings to individuals who object. Effective opt-out management requires coordination between marketing operations, sales operations, and fulfillment vendors.

Implementation steps include: creating standardized opt-out request forms, establishing suppression list storage in CRM or data warehouse, implementing automated checks before campaign launches, sharing suppression lists with fulfillment vendors, and documenting opt-out request handling for compliance audits.

Failure to honor opt-out requests creates compliance risk and damages brand reputation. Organizations face fines up to $43,792 per violation under CAN-SPAM and up to 4% of global revenue under GDPR for serious violations.

Data Security in Fulfillment Operations

Sharing contact data with fulfillment vendors creates data security obligations. Vendors must implement appropriate security controls protecting personal information from unauthorized access or disclosure.

Vendor security requirements include: encrypted data transmission for contact list uploads, access controls limiting data visibility to authorized personnel, secure facilities with monitored access for inventory storage, data retention policies requiring deletion after campaign completion, and vendor contracts establishing data processing terms and liability.

Marketing directors should request SOC 2 Type II reports or ISO 27001 certifications from fulfillment vendors to verify security controls. Vendors unable to provide these certifications present elevated security risk requiring additional due diligence.

Future-Proofing Direct Mail Strategy

Direct mail remains effective because it operates outside increasingly saturated digital channels. As email open rates decline and digital advertising costs rise, physical mail offers differentiated touchpoints that break through competitive noise.

Emerging technologies enhance direct mail effectiveness. Augmented reality integration via QR codes or NFC tags creates interactive experiences connecting physical and digital channels. Variable data printing advances enable more sophisticated personalization at lower costs. Integration platforms improve orchestration between direct mail and digital touchpoints.

The most significant trend is AI-powered campaign optimization. Machine learning models analyze historical campaign performance to predict which accounts will respond to specific package types and timing. Early implementations show 35% improvement in response rates through AI-optimized targeting and creative selection.

Sustainability Considerations and Eco-Friendly Alternatives

Environmental concerns influence B2B buying decisions, particularly among younger decision-makers. Direct mail campaigns using sustainable materials and minimizing waste demonstrate corporate responsibility while maintaining effectiveness.

Sustainable package options include: FSC-certified paper stock from responsibly managed forests, recycled corrugate for structural components, soy-based inks instead of petroleum-based alternatives, biodegradable packing materials replacing plastic bubble wrap, and carbon-neutral shipping through offset programs.

These sustainable alternatives add 8-12% to package costs but resonate with environmentally conscious recipients. Some organizations include sustainability messaging in packages, highlighting eco-friendly material choices as evidence of corporate values alignment.

Adapting to Remote Work and Hybrid Environments

Widespread remote work complicates B2B direct mail targeting. Packages sent to office addresses may sit unopened while recipients work from home. Packages sent to home addresses raise privacy concerns and may feel intrusive.

Strategies for navigating remote work include: using contact data providers that maintain work-from-home address flags, offering recipients choice in delivery address through landing page forms, timing campaigns for periods when office attendance is higher, and designing packages appropriate for home delivery without appearing invasive.

Some organizations now ask prospects for preferred mailing addresses during early conversations, positioning direct mail as a benefit rather than unsolicited marketing. This permission-based approach generates higher response rates and avoids privacy concerns.